Well, inertia is important otherwise your golf ball wouldn't be there to hit - it would be shooting of at the speed of light. Inertia is resistance to acceleration, also known as inertial mass, or just good ol' mass. That the golf ball has inertia allows you to judge the impulse you will provide to it with your club and tuhs, when factoring in the angle you strike it, allows you to predict the range of your ball.
Friction, or more generally contact forces, are necessary for you to supply this impulse in the first place. When you strike the ball with your club, the club exerts a contact force upon the ball which provides that impulse.
Acceleration is neccesary for getting the ball in motion. This is determined by the contact force applied and the inertia (or mass) of the ball:
Force = mass * acceleration.
When striking the ball, you are only accelerating it for a brief period of time, denoted [tex]\Delta t[/tex]. Over this time, the force may be constant or may change, in which case you can just take the average to find the change in momentum of the ball:
[tex]\Delta p = F_{av}\Delta t[/tex].
As this force is applied, the velocity of the ball increases until the impulse has finished (no more force supplied). This velocity will determine the range and duration of the flight of the ball. You can model the velocity as having a vertical component and a horizontal component.
The vertical component is important because gravity will force the ball back down to Earth. The greater the vertical velocity, the longer it will take for gravity to do this. This component determines the time of flight of the ball. The horizontal velocity has no bearing on this in an ideal model.
The time of flight and horizontal velocity together determine the range of the ball. The faster it moves horizontally, the more distance it will cover before hitting the ground.
It has been shown that the ideal angle of the ball's trajectory is 45 degrees off the horizontal. The ideal force applied is as much as possible without smashing it.
Other considerations in golf are air resistance and wind. Air resistance is tricky, and depends on the radius of the golf ball and the speed it travels at. Larger, faster objects are more effected than slower, smaller ones.