Apollo Program: Moon Missions & Last Moonwalk 1972

Eugene Cernan: Last to Walk on the Moon

On December 11, 1972, astronaut Eugene Cernan became the last person to walk on the lunar surface, marking the conclusion of NASA’s Apollo missions. This pivotal chapter in space exploration saw humanity push the boundaries of science and engineering to unprecedented levels.

The Apollo program remains a testament to what human ingenuity can achieve and has inspired generations of scientists, engineers, and dreamers ever since.

The Origins of Apollo

The Apollo program, conceived in the early 1960s, was a direct response to the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. On May 25, 1961, President John F. Kennedy delivered a speech to Congress expressing the desire to send an American safely to the moon and return them to Earth before the decade was out. That ambitious goal captured the imagination of the world and set the stage for a monumental period in scientific achievement.

The program moved forward quickly, and by July 16, 1969, the world watched as Apollo 11 lifted off from Kennedy Space Center with Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins aboard. The mission culminated in Armstrong and Aldrin stepping onto the lunar surface, with Armstrong famously declaring, “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” Their landing marked the first time humans had set foot on another celestial body and forever changed our understanding of space and our place in it.

Apollo 11: The First Lunar Landing

Apollo 11 was a mission characterized by firsts. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin descended to the lunar surface aboard the Lunar Module, Eagle, while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the Command Module, Columbia. On July 20, 1969, Armstrong became the first human to step onto the moon, followed by Aldrin shortly thereafter.

The pair spent more than two hours walking on the surface, collecting 47 pounds (21.3 kg) of lunar rock and soil samples and conducting scientific experiments. Millions of people worldwide watched the events live on television as the astronauts erected the American flag and performed their tasks on the desolate lunar landscape.

Apollo 11 — Key Experiments

• Solar wind experiment — collected particles emitted by the Sun to study their properties.
• Laser retroreflector — installed to allow precise measurements of the Earth–moon distance.
• Seismometer — set up to detect “moonquakes” and probe lunar geology.

On July 24, 1969, Apollo 11’s crew safely returned to Earth, splashing down in the Pacific Ocean near Hawaii and recovered by the USS Hornet. The mission proved that coordinated technology, training, and determination could achieve historic exploration milestones.

Apollo 12: Precision Landing

Apollo 12, launched on November 14, 1969, was the second manned lunar mission. Commanded by Charles “Pete” Conrad, with Richard Gordon and Alan Bean, this mission demonstrated significant gains in landing precision. Conrad and Bean touched down just 600 feet from the unmanned Surveyor 3 probe, a major milestone that showcased NASA’s improved lunar navigation and landing techniques.

While Gordon remained in lunar orbit, Conrad and Bean explored the Ocean of Storms and retrieved parts of Surveyor 3 for analysis on Earth. They deployed additional experiments to study the solar wind and measure the moon’s magnetic field. The mission returned safely on November 24, 1969, adding confidence to NASA’s ability to perform complex lunar operations.

Apollo 13: The “Successful Failure”

Apollo 13, launched on April 11, 1970, was intended to land in the Fra Mauro region, but approximately 56 hours into flight an oxygen tank in the Service Module ruptured, crippling the spacecraft. The crew — Jim Lovell, Fred Haise, and Jack Swigert — abandoned the lunar landing as the spacecraft lost much of its power, water, and oxygen.

NASA’s ground control and the crew improvised solutions, using the Lunar Module, Aquarius, as a lifeboat to provide life support and power for the return trip. The mission became a powerful example of ingenuity, teamwork, and calm problem-solving under extreme pressure. The crew safely splashed down on April 17, 1970.

Apollo 14: Return to Fra Mauro

After Apollo 13, NASA conducted a thorough review and implemented safety improvements. Apollo 14 launched on January 31, 1971, with Alan Shepard, Edgar Mitchell, and Stuart Roosa aboard. Shepard and Mitchell landed at Fra Mauro while Roosa remained in orbit.

During their moonwalks, Shepard and Mitchell collected 96 pounds (43.5 kg) of rock samples, including some of the oldest lunar material recovered. They also deployed instruments to study the moon’s magnetic properties, seismic activity, and solar particles. Shepard famously hit two golf balls on the lunar surface, illustrating the effects of reduced gravity on projectile motion.

Apollo 15: The First “J-Mission”

Apollo 15, launched on July 26, 1971, inaugurated the “J-missions,” featuring longer stays on the surface and use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). David Scott, James Irwin, and Alfred Worden landed near the Hadley–Apennine region, one of the moon’s most geologically diverse areas. Scott and Irwin spent nearly three days on the surface and used the LRV to travel more than 17 miles (27 km).

The crew conducted extensive geological surveys and collected 170 pounds (77 kg) of samples, including the famous “Genesis Rock,” later dated to about 4.6 billion years old. They left a television camera on the surface and deployed a sub-satellite before departing lunar orbit, gathering data on the moon’s gravity and magnetic environment.

Apollo 16: Exploring the Highlands

Apollo 16 launched on April 16, 1972, with John Young, Charles Duke, and Thomas Mattingly. Young and Duke landed in the Descartes highlands to study differences between the lunar highlands and the maria regions explored earlier.

The astronauts spent 71 hours on the surface, with over 20 hours of extravehicular activity (EVA). Using the LRV, they traveled nearly 17 miles and collected 214 pounds (97 kg) of rock and soil, significantly broadening our understanding of the moon’s geologic diversity.

Apollo 17: The Final Lunar Mission

Apollo 17 launched on December 7, 1972, and was the first mission to include a professional scientist — geologist Harrison Schmitt — along with Commander Eugene Cernan and Ronald Evans, who remained in orbit. The mission focused on gathering detailed geological data in the Taurus–Littrow valley.

Cernan and Schmitt spent over 22 hours on the surface, traversing more than 22 miles (35 km) with the LRV and returning 243 pounds (110 kg) of samples, the largest cache from any Apollo mission. Their finds included orange soil that shed light on the moon’s volcanic history. As Cernan left the lunar surface he said, “We leave as we came, and, God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind.”

Legacy of the Apollo Program

The Apollo missions vastly expanded our scientific knowledge of the moon and set the groundwork for future exploration. Instruments installed by astronauts provided long-term data: seismometers revealed “moonquakes” and helped map the lunar interior; heat flow experiments clarified thermal properties; and laser retroreflectors enabled precise Earth–moon distance measurements that continue to refine our understanding of orbital dynamics.

Apollo also accelerated advances in technology — from materials science to early computing and telecommunications. The Saturn V rocket remains one of the most powerful rockets ever built, and Apollo-era engineering influenced the miniaturization and reliability standards seen in modern electronics and spacecraft systems.

Looking Ahead: Mars and Beyond

Since Apollo, no human has returned to the moon, yet the drive to explore endures. Space agencies and private companies worldwide are planning new missions to the lunar surface and beyond. NASA’s Artemis program aims to return humans to the moon with a focus on a sustainable presence that could serve as a stepping stone to Mars.

The lessons learned from Apollo continue to guide Artemis and international plans for crewed missions to Mars — from spacecraft safety protocols and mission planning to scientific priorities and surface operations. Apollo’s legacy remains central to humanity’s next steps in space exploration.