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Physics

Mitochondria

When did Mitochondria Evolve?

February 8, 2016
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7 Comments
Eukaryote evolution and cellular complexity Historically, life is categorized into three broad domains: bacteria, archaea, and eukaryota.  Whereas bacteria…
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islingmodel

High Temperature and Low Duality for the Ising Model on an Infinite Regular Tree

February 7, 2016
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1 Comment
Today I felt like sharing a computation that I thought was interesting. I'm sure I'm not the first to explore the Ising-Ising duality in this context,…
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secondaryforces

Introduction to the Secondary Forces in Physics

February 6, 2016
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7 Comments
Many are familiar with the "fundamental forces" of nature: gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forces. Three of these tend to bind…
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spacetime5

Struggles with the Continuum: Quantum Electrodynamics

February 1, 2016
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10 Comments
  Quantum field theory is the best method we have for describing particles and forces in a way that takes both quantum mechanics…
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spacetime4

Struggles with the Continuum – Relativity and Quantum

January 25, 2016
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5 Comments
 In this series, we're looking at mathematical problems that arise in physics due to treating spacetime as a continuum---basically, problems…
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speedlightframe

Why Is the Speed of Light the Same in All Frames of Reference?

January 17, 2016
Why ask "why" about physical laws? The first thing to worry about here is that when you ask someone for a satisfying answer to a "why" question, you…
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rainbows

Exploration into the Physics of Rainbows

January 5, 2016
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88 Comments
For several years, I have been contemplating this beautiful picture by photographer Brian McPhee. I have a personal interest in the photograph because…
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earthgravity

Learn All About Earth’s Gravity

January 2, 2016
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18 Comments
Introduction Earth's gravitational field at the surface is approximately 9.8 Newtons/kilogram or 9.8 meters/second/second. But how does that change due…
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blackholeexists

Do Black Holes Really Exist?

December 27, 2015
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68 Comments
Introduction The purpose of this article is to discuss the title question from several different viewpoints, to show that it isn't as simple as it looks.…
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greenhouse

Frequently Made Errors in Climate Science – The Greenhouse Effect

December 23, 2015
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87 Comments
1.What is meant by "The Greenhouse Effect"? Many gases, such as H2O, CO2, CH4, are transparent to visible light but absorb and emit parts of the infrared…
https://www.physicsforums.com/insights/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/greenhouse.png 135 240 Derek Bolton https://www.physicsforums.com/insights/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Physics_Forums_Insights_logo.png Derek Bolton2015-12-23 15:43:362021-04-17 12:38:01Frequently Made Errors in Climate Science – The Greenhouse Effect
speedoflight1

Learn About the Speed of Light and Galilean Relativity

December 22, 2015
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39 Comments
Introduction In this article, I will discuss some experiments in the 19th and early 20th centuries that looked at how the velocity of a light source affects…
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cancer

What Causes Cancer: Bad Luck or Bad Lifestyles?

December 17, 2015
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22 Comments
What causes cancer? For the most part, cancer is a disease that arises from mutations in the body that accumulate over time.  These mutations knock…
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buoyancy

Understanding Buoyancy: The Limits of Archimedes

December 16, 2015
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18 Comments
It’s a principle as old as science itself, and remarkably, remains essentially unchanged in the light of revolution after revolution in our understanding…
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heat

What Is Heat? Definition in Thermodynamics Explained

December 11, 2015
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13 Comments
One of the most frustrating misconceptions in thermodynamics centers on the actual definition of heat. Many science and engineering students refer to a…
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electronatom

Why Electrons Don’t Crash Into the Nucleus — Quantum View

December 2, 2015
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12 Comments
Atoms and Coulomb forces If atoms were described only by Coulomb attraction, the electron and nucleus would attract each other and, according to classical…
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airplanelift

How Does an Airplane Wing Work? A Primer on Lift

November 30, 2015
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56 Comments
Many people ask how an airplane wing works, and several answers are commonly given. You might have even seen vigorous arguments between proponents…
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electrostaticfield1

Learn About Energy Gained by Charge in an Electrostatic Field

November 21, 2015
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2 Comments
Energy gain of an electron in a potential V I have seen this question being asked frequently on here. A lot of students have a bit of an issue in understanding…
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seeelectron

Have Scientists Seen an Electron? How We Detect Them

November 17, 2015
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18 Comments
Have Scientists Seen an Electron? Why Seeing Isn't Enough This article is not about literally seeing a single electron with your eye; it addresses the…
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twinparadox

A Geometrical View of Time Dilation and the Twin Paradox

November 12, 2015
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90 Comments
Based on the number of questions we receive on the topic at Physics Forums, there is a lot of confusion in the general public about how time dilation works…
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blockuniverse2

Blockworld and Its Foundational Implications: The Relativity of Simultaneity and Blockworld

November 6, 2015
 In part 1 of this 5-part Insights series, I introduced two consequences of the second postulate of special relativity (SR): time dilation…
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blockuniverse1

Blockworld and Its Foundational Implications: Time Dilation and Length Contraction

November 5, 2015
 This is the first in a 5-part series of Insights that will introduce blockworld (aka "block universe”) and use it to address a puzzle…
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DNA

Atomic Positioning with DNA Hinges

November 2, 2015
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11 Comments
I was perusing the Nature Nanotechnology website today when I came across an interesting article by Funke and Dietz, called "Placing molecules with Bohr…
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prequantum4

Examples of Prequantum Field Theories IV: Wess-Zumino-Witten-type Theories

November 1, 2015
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4 Comments
  At the end of this page, we will have come full circle back to the first article in the series 20 years ago -- The M-Theory Conjecture.We…
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prequantum3

Examples of Prequantum Field Theories III: Chern-Simons-type Theories

October 28, 2015
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1 Comment
  After having constructed gauge fields and higher gauge fields in the previous article by systems of ##L_\infty##-algebroid-valued…
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uncertaintyenergy

Does Heisenberg Uncertainty Violate Energy Conservation?

October 27, 2015
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2 Comments
The short answer is: No — there is no violation. The longer answer Given the probabilistic aspect of quantum theory, what do we mean now by "conservation…
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guagetheory

Examples of Prequantum Field Theories II: Higher Gauge Fields

October 24, 2015
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1 Comment
   After having recalled ordinary gauge fields from a dg-algebraic perspective in the previous article, here I discuss…
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prequantumft

Examples of Prequantum Field Theories I: Gauge Fields

October 22, 2015
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1 Comment
  After having motivated the need for prequantum field theory and having laid out its principles (i. extremal action, ii. global…
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photonsmedium

Do Photons Move Slower in a Solid Medium?

October 12, 2015
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5 Comments
Scope and context This question appears often because it has been shown that in a normal, dispersive solid such as glass, the speed of light is slower…
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redshiftblackholes

Time Dilation & Redshift of Schwarzschild Black Holes

September 30, 2015
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76 Comments
Time dilation near a Schwarzschild black hole The following is an overview of the time-dilation and gravitational-redshift effects of a static (Schwarzschild)…
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gravity3

Does Gravity Gravitate: The Wave

September 27, 2015
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17 Comments
 In the first two posts in this series, we looked at different ways of interpreting the question "does gravity gravitate?" We left off at…
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lightspeedrod

Why Rigid Rods Can’t Send Faster-Than-Light Signals

September 25, 2015
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52 Comments
Why a rigid rod can't send faster-than-light signals One common proposal for achieving faster-than-light (FTL) communication is to use a long, perfectly…
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gravitate2

Does Gravity Gravitate? Part 2

September 23, 2015
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30 Comments
 In the first post of this series, I talked about two ways to answer the title question, one leading to the answer "no" and the other leading…
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blockuniverse

PF’s policy on Lorentz Ether Theory and Block Universe

September 22, 2015
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81 Comments
What is the PF's policy on Lorentz Ether Theory and Block Universe?Debates about the superiority or "truth" of modern Lorentz Ether Theory (LET) and…
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gravitate

Does Gravity Gravitate?

September 20, 2015
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9 Comments
 The title question of this article is one that often comes up in PF threads, and I would like to give my take on it. This will be the first…
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gravityacceleration

Why Is Acceleration Due to Gravity a Constant?

September 15, 2015
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5 Comments
This question has popped up many times. So here is an attempt to address it.To answer this question at the elementary level, several assumptions will…
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spacetime4

Struggles With the Continuum: Point Particles and the Electromagnetic Field

September 14, 2015
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20 Comments
 In these posts, we're seeing how our favorite theories of physics deal with the idea that space and time are a continuum, with points described…
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bubbles

Explosion-Generated Collapsing Vacuum Bubbles Reach 20,000 Kelvin

September 13, 2015
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5 Comments
Experiment overview In a recent paper published in Physical Review Letters (PRL), one of the top physics journals, Jérôme Duplat and Emmanuel Villermaux…
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what_is_evolution

What Is Evolution? How It Works — Mechanisms & Evidence

September 13, 2015
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0 Comments
What is evolution? In every field of scientific endeavor there sometimes comes a quantum shift in knowledge, a grand denouement that changes how we see…
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speedoflight

Why Does C Have a Particular Value, and Can It Change?

September 10, 2015
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53 Comments
Short answer: Because c (speed of light) has units, its value is what it is only because of our choice of units, and there is no meaningful way to test…
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planck

What Planck Length Is and It’s Common Misconceptions

September 9, 2015
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30 Comments
The Planck length is an extremely small distance constructed from physical constants. Many misconceptions overstate its physical significance, claiming…
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spacetime2

Struggles With The Continuum: Quantum Mechanics of Charged Particles

September 8, 2015
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39 Comments
 Last time we saw that nobody yet knows if Newtonian gravity, applied to point particles, truly succeeds in predicting the future. To be precise:…
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gravitywaves

How Fast Do Changes in the Gravitational Field Propagate?

September 7, 2015
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20 Comments
Overview General relativity predicts that disturbances in the gravitational field propagate as gravitational waves, and that low-amplitude gravitational…
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animal speeds

Animal Speed Scaling: Body-Lengths per Second Across Sizes

September 4, 2015
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19 Comments
Introduction In a recent American Journal of Physics issue, I read an interesting paper by Nicole Meyer-Vernet and Jean-Pierre Rospars examining the top…
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photoelectric

“Violating” Einstein’s Photoelectric Effect Model

August 31, 2015
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4 Comments
Einstein's Photoelectric Insight One of the most spectacular theoretical descriptions that Einstein had ever produced is the corpuscular nature of light…
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lightswitch

What Happens When You Flip the Light Switch: From Zero Seconds to 20 Years

August 26, 2015
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47 Comments
Introduction Few people know what happens when a customer does something like flipping a light switch. The full explanation requires descriptions of topics…
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photonmass

Do Photons have Mass?

August 24, 2015
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5 Comments
Do photons have mass? The quick answer: NOCommon source of confusion However, this is where it gets a bit confusing for most people. This is because,…
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relativitytherorm

Learn the Relativistic Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

August 23, 2015
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19 Comments
I was bothered for a long time by the reasons for the relativistic validity of the work-kinetic energy relation ##\Delta E=Fd##, which holds without any…
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supergravity

Emergence From the Superpoint

August 22, 2015
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6 Comments
 In the previous article we saw that the generalization of super-Lie algebras to homotopy super-Lie n-algebras (super L-infinity algebras)…
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blackholesforce

An Equation for the Centrifugal Force Reversal Near A Black Hole

August 19, 2015
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15 Comments
My goal in this article is to derive a simple equation for the proper acceleration of an observer traveling on a circular path around a Schwarzschild black…
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liealgebra

Homotopy Lie-n Algebras in Supergravity

August 18, 2015
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1 Comment
 The previous article in this series claimed that the mathematics of the 21st century that had fallen into the 1970s in the form of string…
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birktheo

Learn A Short Proof of Birkhoff’s Theorem

August 18, 2015
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8 Comments
Birkhoff's theorem is a very useful result in General Relativity, and pretty much any textbook has a proof of it. The one I first read was in Misner, Thorne,…
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string theory

It Was 20 Years Ago Today — the M-theory Conjecture

August 17, 2015
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2 Comments
  While the world didn't end, after all, 15 years back at the turn of the millennium, in hindsight it is curious that, almost unnoticed,…
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spaceship

Bell Spaceship Paradox: Why the String Breaks in SR

August 12, 2015
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33 Comments
Bell spaceship paradox — setup Bell describes two spaceships that start out at rest relative to each other with an elastic string between them, one…
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hupmisconceptions1

Learn a Misconception of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

August 11, 2015
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26 Comments
One of the common misconceptions about the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP) is that it is the fault of our measurement accuracy.A description…
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quantum_tunneling

Why You Can’t Quantum Tunnel Through a Wall

August 10, 2015
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64 Comments
Can You Quantum Tunnel Through a Wall? Short answer The short and sweet answer if a tennis ball, a bowling ball, or any other kind of ordinary macroscopic…
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relmass

What is relativistic mass and why it is not used much?

August 9, 2015
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58 Comments
It happens that the term relativistic mass is used, in particular in the introductory text on special relativity. It should be noted that whether or not…
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neutrino

Learn About Neutrino Masses and Speed

July 21, 2015
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28 Comments
It was hard to miss the 2011 OPERA neutrino speed measurement that indicated superluminal neutrino speeds (and turned out to be a measurement error), but…
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gravity

Understanding the General Relativity View of Gravity on Earth

July 20, 2015
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102 Comments
Often students have difficulty reconciling the General Relativity (GR) view of gravity versus their own experience with gravity on the surface of Earth.…
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measuringentanglement

Can You Measure Quantum Entanglement?

July 14, 2015
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23 Comments
What is Quantum Entanglement? Though any pair of particles, given their history, might happen to be entangled, some pairs are more entangled than others. …
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garrett

Garrett Lisi’s Superparticle Bet With Frank Wilczek

July 10, 2015
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52 Comments
There is an interesting story unfolding in particle physics. The main motivation for building the Large Hadron Collider was to search for new particles.…
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qftintegrals

Some Useful Integrals In Quantum Field Theory

July 4, 2015
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2 Comments
In my paper on renormalisation I mentioned what most who have studied calculations in Quantum Field Theory find, it's rather complicated and mind-numbing.…
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arrowoftime

Retrocausality: How Fundamental is the Arrow of Time?

June 16, 2015
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26 Comments
In this Insight, I'll discuss a recent experiment ([1]  [2] [3]) by some Australian physicists that has brought a thought experiment into the real world…
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gas compression

Reversible vs Irreversible Gas Compression and Expansion Work

June 8, 2015
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26 Comments
Introduction In learning Thermodynamics, one of the difficult concepts that many students struggle with is the difference between reversible and irreversible…
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perbation theory

Introduction to Causal Perturbation Theory

June 7, 2015
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30 Comments
Relativistic quantum field theory is notorious for the occurrence of divergent expressions that must be renormalized by recipes that on first sight sound…
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LHC quiz

LHC Quiz: Think You Know about the LHC?

June 4, 2015
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25 Comments
News of the LHC progress has dazzled scientists and hobbyists alike. It's now time to show just how much you know about the operation.Please share…
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heat errors

Frequently Made Errors in Heat: Elementary Level

June 1, 2015
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3 Comments
1. Heat, Work, Internal Energy, and Kinetic Energy "If heat is the motion of molecules, why isn't it Kinetic Energy?"In everyday use, we may think…
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cheshirecat

Weak Values Part 2: The Quantum Cheshire Cat Experiment

May 30, 2015
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0 Comments
In a previous Insight, Weak Values Part 1: "Asking Photons Where They Have Been," I showed different methods for computing the relative intensities in…
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askingphotons

Weak Values Part 1: Asking Photons Where They Have Been

May 30, 2015
In a previous Insight on retrocausality, I explained an experiment by Danan, Farfurnik, Bar-Ad, and Vaidman (DFBV)[1], “Asking Photons Where They Have…
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negative temperature

Negative Absolute Temperatures: Explanation & Examples

May 29, 2015
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9 Comments
It's a famous result in thermodynamics that you cannot reach absolute zero no matter how hard you try. Given the definition of absolute zero, it is also…
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What is Energy

A Definition and Controversy of Energy

May 27, 2015
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44 Comments
[CONTENT] What is energy? Energy is a fundamental concept that refers to the capacity of a system to do work. It is a scalar quantity, meaning it has magnitude…
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Coriolis

Frequently Made Errors: Pseudo and Resultant Forces

May 26, 2015
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12 Comments
  1. Real versus Fictitious Pseudo, or "fictitious", forces can arise when a non-inertial frame of reference is used. Using a non-inertial frame…
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LHC

LHC Part 3: Protons as Large as a Barn

May 25, 2015
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8 Comments
Introduction See also part 1 and part 2 of the series.The LHC commissioning phase is coming to and end. On Wednesday May 20th 2015, the first collisions…
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renormalization2

Why Renormalisation in Quantum Theory Needs a Cutoff

May 24, 2015
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31 Comments
Introduction This is a follow on from my paper explaining renormalization. A question was raised - why exactly do we need a cut-off. There is a deep reason…
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errors springs

Frequently Made Errors in Mechanics: Springs

May 23, 2015
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3 Comments
  1. Springs in Series "A spring of constant ##k_1## is connected in series with a spring of constant ##k_2##.  What is the spring constant…
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impact errors

Frequently Made Errors in Mechanics: Momentum and Impacts

May 20, 2015
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1 Comment
  An impact is an impulse (change of momentum) that involves arbitrarily large forces acting very briefly. These result in near-instantaneous…
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hydrostatics

Frequently Made Errors in Mechanics: Hydrostatics

May 19, 2015
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3 Comments
  1. Archimedes' Principle X "When a body is placed in a liquid, the weight of the body equals the weight of the liquid displaced"That will…
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Alzheimers

Can Gene Editing Eliminate Alzheimer’s Disease?

May 18, 2015
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13 Comments
The development of the CRISPR/Cas9 system has made gene editing a relatively simple task.  While CRISPR and other gene-editing technologies stand to revolutionize…
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gausslaw

Derivation of Gauss’s Law: Coulomb to Flux Explained

May 15, 2015
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3 Comments
Gauss's law was formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835. It is one of the four Maxwell's equations that form the basis of classical electrodynamics.…
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subway

Brachistochrone Subway Tunnels: Speed vs. Depth Tradeoffs

May 14, 2015
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6 Comments
Introduction A subway tunnel could, in principle, operate without external energy (like electricity) if we assume zero friction everywhere. The train would…
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kinematic errors

Frequently Made Errors: Kinematics Mistakes Explained

May 12, 2015
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10 Comments
Kinematics is the subset of dynamics that only concerns itself with time, displacement, velocity, and acceleration. A problem is a kinematics problem…
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mistakes moments

Frequently Made Errors: Mechanics — Moments and Torque

May 10, 2015
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7 Comments
Entire List for Frequently Made Errors Series MechanicsForces Friction Moments Kinematics Hydrostatics Momentum and Impacts Springs Pseudo…
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renormalization

Quantum Renormalisation Made Easy

May 9, 2015
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24 Comments
What Is The Issue With Renormalisation If you have an interest in physics you have likely come across renormalisation before, although what it really…
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electrical wire

Mutual Inductance: When k≠1 and Two Coupling Coefficients

May 9, 2015
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4 Comments
Mutual inductance and the coupling coefficient A commonly used formula for mutual inductance M between two nearby coils L1 and L2 is M = k√(L1*L2).…
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redlights

Learn About the Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger Experiment

May 9, 2015
In two previous Insights, I shared Mermin's explanation of the Hardy experiment[1] and the Mermin device[2]. Both of his corresponding AJP papers presented…
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mermin

The Quantum Liar Experiment: An Instantiation of the Mermin Device

May 9, 2015
In 1981, Mermin published a paper[1], "Bringing home the atomic world: Quantum mysteries for anybody" in which he explained the mystery of quantum nonlocality[2]…
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friction

Frequently Made Errors in Mechanics: Friction

May 8, 2015
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8 Comments
1. Direction of the normalDefinition: The normal force that body A exerts on body B is that force of minimum magnitude which suffices to prevent penetration…
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forces mistakes

Frequently Made Errors in Mechanics: Forces

May 6, 2015
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35 Comments
Entire List for Frequently Made Errors Series Mechanics Forces Friction Moments Kinematics Hydrostatics Momentum and Impacts …
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2D Animation

Particle in a Box: 1D & 2D Quantum Visualizations

May 4, 2015
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11 Comments
Introduction The particle in a box is a staple of entry-level quantum mechanics courses because it provides a clear contrast between classical and quantum…
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LHC Part 2: Commissioning

May 3, 2015
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23 Comments
View All PartsPart 1: LHC about to restart - some FAQs Part 2: Commissioning Part 3: Protons as Large as a Barn Part 4: Searching for New Particles…
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Thermodynamics

Understanding the Second Law of Thermodynamics Clearly

April 30, 2015
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73 Comments
Introduction The second law of thermodynamics and the associated concept of entropy have been sources of confusion for thermodynamics students for centuries.…
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CrispR DNA

Why CRISPR Technologies Won’t Lead to Designer Babies

April 28, 2015
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37 Comments
The prospect of designer babies has been a staple of the dystopian futures imagined by science-fiction writers, evoking fears of eugenics (e.g. Brave…
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hand_to_hand_combat

Hand-to-Hand Combat Physics — Force, Momentum, Speed

September 13, 2014
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0 Comments
Physics of Hand-to-Hand Combat Hand-to-hand combat (often abbreviated H2H or HTH) refers to fighting at very close range, usually without weapons. It includes…
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evolution_faq

Evolution Explained: FAQs, Evidence & Common Misconceptions

September 4, 2014
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[CONTENT] Key PointsEvolution is a scientific theory supported by multiple independent lines of evidence. In science, the term "theory" denotes a…
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evolution_evidence

5 Pieces of Evidence that Support Theory of Evolution

September 2, 2014
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Evidence for Evolution If you’re new to the topic, these primers provide helpful background:What is Evolution: A Beginner’s Guide What Is Evolution…
https://www.physicsforums.com/insights/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/evolution_evidence.png 135 240 Greg Bernhardt https://www.physicsforums.com/insights/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Physics_Forums_Insights_logo.png Greg Bernhardt2014-09-02 14:37:382026-02-16 09:39:015 Pieces of Evidence that Support Theory of Evolution
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